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Country Profile: Sudan
Background
Sudan has been at war for nearly 50 years, beginning months before gaining independence on Jan. 1, 1956, from Britain. Except for an interlude of peace lasting eleven years following the Addis Ababa Accords in 1972, the country was in a state of civil war until the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005. However, there is a longer history of conflict and contention. Since earliest records, Sudan has been the site of continual conflicts over state control and the nature of Sudanese identity. Various African identities struggle to assert themselves in the broader context of nationhood in what has become a regional conflict for resources and political control. The lack of consensus over what it means to be Sudanese, in terms of geography, religion, and ethnicity, and what legal and political form the state should take has been the root of Sudan's numerous civil wars and conflicts. Subsequent discrimination and political marginalization based on these perceived differences have resulted in huge disparities in economic development and political representation, particularly between the wealthier North and the other marginalized regions, laying the foundation for the regional rivalries and intense dissatisfaction.
Sudan's second civil war between the North and South (1983-2005) caused an estimated two million deaths and the displacement of another four million, both inside and outside the state. The economic costs also have been devastating, creating significant obstacles to sustaining peace and rebuilding a functioning society. Despite substantial natural resources, Sudan sits at 139 out of 177 in the U.N. Development Programme's human development table with an annual per capita GDP of US$1,820. These figures were compiled based on information solely on Northern Sudan and completely ignore the dire situation in the South. At present, Sudan requires high levels of external assistance to feed its citizens and to maintain even the most basic levels of health care and education.
The North-South Conflict
The 2005 CPA between the Government of Sudan (GOS) and Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) was a turning point for the longest civil war in Africa, resulting in a settlement on distribution of natural resources, power sharing, oil revenues, the role of religion in the state, the future of political divisions between the North and South and issues of security and disarmament. Ongoing sporadic violence leads some observers to be concerned that the CPA may be in danger. Delays in the provisions of its security arrangements governing militia reintegration and disarmament pose one particular challenge. For example, in December 2006 in Malakal, in a contentious border area, a clash between Southern-affiliated Sudanese People Liberation Army (SPLA) troops, and Northern-affiliated Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) militia members resulted, according the U.S. State Department, in an estimated 150 civilians and soldiers on both sides being killed and hundreds more civilians being wounded.
Sudan has an estimated population of 41.2 million, led by a Government of National Unity (GNU), whose mandate extends until scheduled elections in 2009. The government is composed of the National Congress Party (NCP), dominated by Islamists from the north and led by President Omar al-Bashir, and the SPLM, made up predominantly of Christians and practitioners of indigenous religions from the south and led by Vice President Salva Kiir. The CPA granted the NCP a majority in a northern assembly and GNU. The SPLM acts as the ruling party of the autonomous Government of Southern Sudan, established in October 2005. A referendum to determine whether the South will become an independent entity was granted under the CPA for 2011.
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Chadian women collect water supplies during the visit of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Antonio Guterres, unseen, to the Um Shalaya refugee camp south of the Darfur town of Al-Geneina, Sudan, April 25, 2007. The UNHCR chief was welcomed with traditional songs by Chadian refugees at the camp that is located 65 km from the Chadian borders, during his second day tour at refugee camps in West Darfur that included a security briefing at the African Union Sector Head Quarters. (AP Photo/Nasser Nasser) | The Darfur CrisisWith the political resolution of the civil war between the North and the South, the worsening conflict in Darfur rose to the attention of the international community. According to the United Nations, more than 200,000 persons have died, there are two million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), and an estimated 234,000 refugees have fled to neighboring Chad. Long-simmering tensions escalated when rebel groups attacked government targets, demanding that the marginalized region be accorded similar rights as the South was, negotiating for itself. The government response, included aerial bombardments and arming of local militias, called janjaweed, adding to the more local tensions and disputes over resources, access to water, and grazing rights.
In May 2006, the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) was signed by the government and the Sudan Liberation Movement faction (SLM), led by Minni Minawi. However, the agreement did not succeed in ending the conflict and instead has exacerbated divisions among the rebel movements, the majority of whom did not sign the DPA. The failure of the DPA to reconcile all of the relevant factions generated further conflict including serious abuses of civilians, forced displacement, rape, killings, and increasing attacks on humanitarian aid workers.
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With an army patrol in the background, Eritrean refugee children look on during the visit of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Antonio Guterres to the Wad Sherrife refugee camp at the outskirts of the eastern Sudan town of Kassala, April 26, 2007. The UNHCR chief visited the two refugee camps of Wad Sherrife and Kilo 26 near the Eritrean border on the last day of his visit to Sudan. (AP Photo/Nasser Nasser) | In 2005, the government established a tribunal to respond to the crimes in Darfur, but there was no decline in crimes committed by militia leaders and government officials against civilians. Government forces, janjaweed militia, and Darfur rebel groups continued to commit serious abuses, including the reported killing of at least several thousand civilians. Government and aligned militias reportedly razed numerous villages, and committed acts of torture and violence against women. Rebel groups also were responsible for rape and attacks on humanitarian convoys and compounds to steal equipment and supplies, resulting in death and injury to humanitarian workers.
Despite the presence of the African Union (AU)-led international monitoring force, African Mission in Sudan (AMIS), security remained a major problem and deteriorated during 2006 and early 2007. The credibility of the 7,000-member AU force was weakened due to its association with the unpopular DPA and failures to protect residents from violence. Some frustrated IDP camp residents attacked AMIS members in several camps.
Current Human Rights ConditionsThe government's human rights record is poor, with numerous serious problems, including evidence of the commission of atrocities in Darfur, for which the government continued to be implicated through the summer of 2007. Various armed rebel groups reportedly continue to commit grave human rights violations in Darfur.
Sudanese human rights organizations have been documenting and reporting human rights violations for over two decades on a range of issues and continue to work to put pressure on the government of the Sudan to address violations. Human Rights Watch, Human Rights First, and the International Crisis Group, focused mainly on the atrocities being committed in the Darfur region since fighting broke out in 2002, though these and other organizations also report on a range of issues throughout the country.
The U.S. State Department annual human rights report for 2006 documented the persistent practice of slavery, extrajudicial and other unlawful killings; torture, beatings, rape and other cruel, inhumane treatment or punishment by security forces; harsh prison conditions; arbitrary arrest and detention, and prolonged pretrial detention; executive interference with the judiciary and denial of due process; forced military conscription of underage men; obstruction of the delivery of humanitarian assistance; infringement on citizens' right to privacy, freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, religion, and movement; the harassment of IDPs and of local and international human rights and humanitarian organizations; violence and discrimination against women, including the practice of female genital mutilation; child abuse, including sexual violence and recruitment as child soldiers; trafficking in persons; discrimination and violence against ethnic minorities; denial of workers' rights; and forced labor, including child labor, by security forces and both aligned and non-aligned militias in Southern Sudan and Darfur.
According to various sources, sexual violence continues unabated throughout Darfur, with attacks on women and girls occurring as part of clashes between factions as well as when during urgent forays outside camp settings to fetch water and food. Human rights organizations reported that more than 200 women and girls were sexually assaulted over a five week period in August 2006 in Kalma, the largest IDP camp in South Darfur. Humanitarian aid workers have been attacked by armed groups from all sides, with numerous humanitarian staff killed in 2006 and 2007. Because of the insecurity, aid organizations have found it more difficult to distribute needed relief to the population.
Human rights organizations assert that the government made no serious effort to investigate or prosecute those individuals responsible for the most serious crimes in Darfur, despite establishing a national tribunal in 2005. The government tribunal, according to Human Rights Watch, tried a handful of cases, none of them linked to the massive crimes that took place in 2003-2004, and there were no meaningful investigations into any individuals with command responsibility. Meanwhile senior Sudanese officials questioned the legitimacy and authority of the International Criminal Court (ICC), which issued arrest warrants for a government minister and two rebel commanders. The government has stated publicly that there would be no Sudanese cooperation with the ICC, which is investigating crimes in Darfur following the March 2005 referral by the U.N. Security Council, and has thus refused to hand over those for whom arrest warrants have been issued.
Despite the introduction of a new interim national constitution and some progress implementing the CPA, many of the national reforms specified in the CPA, including the establishment of a National Human Rights Commission, are lagging well behind schedule. The ceasefire has largely been respected in southern Sudan, and the new Government of South Sudan made some progress setting up the top level of regional institutions and administration, including a Human Rights Commission for the south. Working Conditions for Human Rights DefendersJournalists and human rights defenders report suffering harassment, arrest, and detention without charge, and other forms of intimidation, mainly from Sudanese security forces. According to the U.S. State Department, at least 15 international and Sudanese journalists were arrested and detained in 2006, and many more faced harassment, beatings, and bureaucratic restrictions, particularly related to efforts to travel to and report on the situation in Darfur and other sensitive issues. Press censorship and restrictions on Sudanese media have increased, with security officials carrying out inspections of publications and, in some cases, banning publications altogether. Human rights activists also report facing harassment or mistreatment in Sudan. Individuals or organizations raising concerns about the humanitarian or human rights situation in Darfur did so in an atmosphere of increasing intimidation, with Sudanese officials making threatening accusations in the mainstream press, which human rights groups claim is controlled by the government. Security forces intruded on a meeting of Sudanese and international human rights activists during the January 2006 AU Summit in Khartoum, detaining the group for hours and confiscating personal belongings. Staff working for the Sudanese Organization Against Torture (SOAT) and other NGOs were repeatedly arbitrarily detained and questioned by government security agencies in Darfur.
Amnesty International (AI) reported in August 2006 that peaceful demonstrations in Khartoum against price rises in petrol and sugar were met with tear gas and batons by police. Sentences of up to two months' imprisonment for public order offences were passed on 80 people. AI reported that an alleged SLA sympathizer Ibrahim Birzi died as a result of torture and is thought to have been buried secretly. He was one of 13 internally displaced people from Foro Baranga, south of al-Jeneina in Darfur, who were arrested in September 2006, severely beaten with bicycle chains and leather whips, and had their heads submerged under water. They were reportedly suspected of being supporters of the SLA, one of the Darfuri rebel movements. SOAT reported that torture continued to be used systematically against certain groups, including students and detainees in Darfur.
AI acknowledges that appeal and criminal courts in Khartoum acquit political detainees in some trials. However, the organization pointed out that in the majority of trials, rights of defense are curtailed or absent, and testimony given under duress is accepted as evidence. Dozens of death sentences have been passed, usually after unfair trials in which rights of defense, including the right to be represented by counsel, were not respected. There was forced displacement in many areas, including Darfur, parts of the south, and the area of the Meroe dam. AI reported that the Khartoum municipal authorities continued to forcibly evict internally displaced people who had settled in the Khartoum area even though the Governor promised a moratorium on all relocations until they were better planned and until the new locations met certain minimum standards.
U.S. PolicySince 9/11, the Bush Administration's policy toward Sudan has been dominated by counter-terrorism cooperation, while also focusing on forging peace and providing humanitarian assistance. Sudan being a place of residence for Osama Bin Laden made it a higher priority on the U.S. agenda. The United States began to exert considerable influence during the early years of the Bush Administration to advance the North-South peace talks, resulting eventually in the CPA. Critics of other aspects of U.S. policy have praised its leadership in this area. There also has been a shift resulting from the increasing violence in Darfur. President Bush and other senior officials condemned the regime for its part in the Darfur crisis, characterizing events in Darfur as "genocide." In May 2007, President Bush issued executive orders establishing sanctions against individuals and companies the United States asserts are implicated in the atrocities in Darfur. According to the U.S. State Department, economic sanctions on two Sudanese Government officials, a Darfur rebel leader, and 30 companies owned or controlled by the Government of Sudan are intended to pressure the government to take actions that will result in an end to the violence in Darfur.
The United States also has proposed a draft resolution at the United Nations that would expand existing U.N. sanctions against the government of Sudan, including an arms embargo. The United States is encouraging other nations to issue bi-lateral sanctions against Sudan as well.
Despite these recent U.S. government actions, the U.S. State Department recently issued a report calling Sudan a "strong partner in the war on terror." Elites in Khartoum have long dominated the political and economic landscape in Sudan. As this increasingly comes under challenge from the regions, the fear is that military approaches will prevail over negotiated political solutions, with resulting human rights abuses and continuing suffering among civilians.
Sources and Organizational Links:Sudan Human Rights Organization(SHRO) - Cairo branch
Sudan Organization Against TortureNuba SurvivalRiseHuman Rights WatchAmnesty InternationalInternational Crisis GroupU.S. State Department 2006 Human Rights Report News Links:The New Vision All Africa Newshttp://hdr.undp.org/statistics/
Updated August 2007
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